Fernando V. Beup, Jr.
History 151
The Korean Writing System: Its History and Role in the Rise of Korean Nationalism and Korea's Modernization
The study of languages and writing systems is a concern under the domains of linguistics. And, as most linguists would agree, a nation's sense of identity and consciousness are chiefly shaped by its language. This is best discerned from a language's ability to convey ideas, emotions and nuances that are unique to the culture where it belongs.
Languages possess certain powers by their ability to capture the wide range of a culture's spectrum of thought and feelings and convey these effectively. If the chief purpose of language is for communication, as indeed it is, then it must be able to communicate these things not only verbally but also through a set of symbols; hence, the necessity of a writing system.
The need for a writing system cannot be under-emphasized. It is well known that where people have the ability to read and write, the greater is the chance for them to achieve a high degree of development. The importance that modern society places on literacy is one clear proof that it is an indispensable tool for improving the lives of its people and advancing its level of development.
Obviously, a writing system makes it easier for people to communicate without the use of spoken language. The transmission of information, their multiplication as well as their storage can be tremendously enhanced only through the written word. It is beyond doubt that the ancient writings of the Egyptians and other ancient civilizations all served the purpose of communication, without which it would have been impossible for us to decipher the mysteries of the past.
Yet for all the languages man has studied and catalogued, no particular writing system in the world has ever been known to have been invented and implemented. Except, of course, for the writing system of Korea.
The Korean writing system, or hangul, stands as most unique in the world for being the only known writing system to possess a clear origin. Moreover, it is the only known writing system to have been developed for the special use of the Korean people with the purpose of bringing literacy down to the most common people. Since its adoption, hangul has been credited for its significant contribution to the development of Korea as well as in the shaping of a nation that is imbued with strong nationalism and great pride in its history.
It is the purpose of this paper to explore the origins and development of the Korean alphabet, the motivations for its invention and how it has been used through Korean history to ultimately contribute to the Koreans' sense of nationalism, pride, and rapid advance to modernization.
Like Japan, Korea's history and culture is strongly linked to China. This cultural link is obvious not only in the predominance of Confucianism and Buddhism in the said countries but also in the arts as well as in their languages. This is not to say, however, that Korean language and Chinese are the same. Gustaf John Rumstedt writes:
As the Koreans have been under Chinese cultural and political influence for thousands of years it is natural that, like the Japanese and the Annamese, they should have adopted the Chinese mode of writing… The Korean language lacks words for more abstract ideas, and from the oldest times many Chinese words and expressions have been borrowed. Of what the language earlier possessed much may have been lost during the passing of the centuries.
[1]It was not convenient, however, for the Koreans to use Chinese characters in writing Korean words. Not quite incidentally, the words represented in Chinese characters had to have two pronunciations--one in Korean, and the other in Chinese.
[2] This fundamental difference, as well as the acknowledged complexity of the Chinese writing system obviously made it difficult for many Koreans to be literate. If many of them had to read and write, there must be a way for them to do so in a far easier way.
King Sejong of the Yi Dynasty recognized the difficulty of ordinary Koreans to write in Chinese. Sejong's concern about the Koreans’ difficulty in adopting China’s writing system was not without justification. It is said that prior to the introduction of hangul, many Koreans wrote in ordinary Chinese, and their methods indicated that it was difficult for them to use.
[3] Obviously disturbed by this problem, Sejong commissioned in 1440 a team of scholars to devise a system of writing to express the Korean language which that he then promulgated in 1446.
[4]The implications of King Sejong's action are tremendously important. First, it showed his deep concern for his people to be able to participate in the interactions of society; and second, it conveyed his strong desire to free his people from the bondage of ignorance. Sejong's preface to Hunmin Jeongum, or "Correct Sounds for Teaching the Korean Language Properly to the People," on the promulgation of the Korean writing system in 1446 reveals his benevolent, liberal, independent and democratic mind:
The sounds of our language differ from those of Chinese and are not easily communicated by using Chinese graphs. Many among the ignorant, therefore, though they wish to express their sentiments in writing, have been unable to communicate. Considering this situation with compassion, I have newly devised twenty-eight letters. I wish only that the people will learn them easily and use them conveniently in their daily life.
[5]The simplicity of the completed Korean alphabet in combining Korean sounds was remarkable. So simple in fact was the system that in a postscript to King Sejong’s words, Chong Inji, an official who helped invent the alphabet, wrote that “a clever man can learn them in one morning while a dull man may take ten days to study them.”
[6] The accuracy of its symbols in rendering the sounds of the Korean language and the ease by which it can be learned are one of makes hangul as perhaps the most scientific writing system in the world currently in use.
[7]As could be expected, such utter simplicity of hangul did not easily suit many of the learned class. Indeed, it did not gain much acceptance during its first years of existence. Many of those opposed to its use looked down on the new writing system, deeming it inferior to Chinese. Ch’oe Malli (a scholar-official), in a straightforward letter of opposition to the use of hangul, wrote:
It has been said that the barbarians are transformed only by means of adopting the Chinese ways; we have never heard of the Chinese ways being transformed by the barbarians. Historically, China has always regarded our country as the state that has maintained the virtuous customs bequeathed by the sage-king Kija and has viewed our literature, rituals, and music as similar to its own. Now, however, our country is devising a Korean script separately in order to discard the Chinese, and thus we are willingly reduced to the status of barbarians.
….This Korean script is nothing more than a novelty. It is harmful to learning and useless to the government. No matter how one looks at it, one cannot find any good in it…
[8]That King Sejong would be enthralled to devise a writing system that the educated class would find “barbaric” is curious, for Sejong himself belonged on top of this privileged class.
It is highly probable that Sejong’s resolve to bring literacy to his people may have gone beyond mere concern for the welfare of his people and may in fact have been the very first tangible expression of asserting Korea’s cultural achievements distinguishable from that of China. Indeed, Sejong was known to possess a strong sense of patriotism and independence and demonstrated this in his leadership. Among the things he envisioned during his reign was to strengthen the Korean monarchy and elevate its status and prestige to that of China’s.
[9] In an apparent move to reinforce Korea's stature and uniqueness, Sejong also asked a scholar to write an essay which stated that Korean kings, just as their Chinese counterparts, also had been given the Mandate of Heaven.
[10]Despite the minimal success of hangul in its first few years of use, it began to be increasingly adopted by the Koreans as time went by. Partly responsible for its slow initial progress was due to domestic problems. In the years between 1450 and 1500, the progress of hangul suffered a setback as it was severely persecuted because of political turmoil during the reign of Yonsan-gun.
[11]Considered in Korean history as the country's most reprobate ruler, Yonsan-gun banned the use of hangul and ordered to search and destroy "everything and anything that could be found written in it."
[12]The progress of hangul was perhaps better realized than Sejong had hoped. But perhaps the most remarkable effect to have resulted from the use of hangul could not have made him any happier, for then the movement of the Korean script through the different periods of history indicated that his vision of a proud, culturally unique and independent Korea was inching closer to being realized. Slowly, hangul, more than just a simplified writing system meant to educate the people, was starting to take a life of its own as a major instrument for expressing cultural identity and nationalism. It is noted, for instance, that in the seventeenth century, following the two Japanese invasions of Korea from 1597, folk literature increased and hangul began to be used not only among ordinary people but also in the court and in the palace. During this time verses, sijo (a form of poetry), and novels came to be expressed in hangul as well. By the sixteenth century, hangul had become fixed as the Korean script and scholars began using it widely in composing lyrics and poems.
[13]Once this was achieved, the spread of hangul could no longer be denied nor stopped. By the eighteenth century, during the reigns of King Yonjo and King Chongjo, hangul began to achieve widespread use by the people, and literary works written in it were widely read by ordinary citizens and those belonging to the aristocracy.
[14] Around this time, authorship also changed from the yangban or the upper class to those of lower social class.
[15] To a significant extent, the widespread use of the Korean script indicated that many people had already become adapted to its use and that literacy had been enhanced so that by the latter half of the century when the West was starting to make its presence felt in Korea, the country was already ripe for further learning from the outside. Korea began to be stimulated to write on different fields of learning, and hangul began to be widely used in newspapers, magazines and textbooks. With the creation of the Office of Publication in 1883, lead type also came to be used for hangul.
[16]What King Sejong set about to bringing learning to the most ordinary Koreans had now been significantly realized. But the other real impact of hangul was just starting to work itself into the psyche of Koreans. With learning now at the beckon of everyone, it became inevitable that the Korean script now symbolized a crowning achievement of Korean culture and civilization, consequently bringing more pride and confidence in the country which had been culturally dependent on China for most of its history.
Such pride of the Koreans had been well known. It does not therefore come as a surprise that when it was annexed by Japan in 1910, it felt itself badly humiliated by "a nation that, in its [Korea] flattering opinion of itself, had previously looked down on Japan as backward…"
[17]Understandably, the occupation of Japan proved disastrous for the development of hangul and the Korean language as the Japanese exercised control on literary freedom and imposed their own language on the Korean people. Indeed, it was the Japanese language that was at the very core of the educational policy that Japan imposed on the country.
[18] It was this oppressive government that would serve as a pivot for hangul and the Korean language to become an instrument and reference point, among others, from which Koreans would draw their nationalism and patriotism. Indeed, there are plenty of references in Korea's history that point to this. The impact of hangul and the Korean language on the Koreans' consciousness had now been made obvious:
When Korea was moving from the "new literature" into the era of modern literature…there was a proud awakening to the fact that Korea, while a member in good standing of the cultural sphere in which the Chinese written word held sway, had its own culture and its own script, which, even under oppressive Japanese rule, was, among other things, a symbol of nationalism (emphasis mine).
[19]Even prior to Japan's annexation of Korea, the Japanese aggression, it appears, had already prompted the Koreans to be more patriotic. It was during this period that Korean newspapers like The Independent, first founded in 1896, began writing in hangul alphabet providing news and simultaneously fighting for the preservation of Korea's independence. Other newspapers like the Capital Gazette (1898), published in mixed Chinese-hangul script, was at the forefront of the resistance against the Japanese aggression.
The years preceding and following the Japanese occupation saw many expressions of nationalism centered around hangul and the Korean language. It is acknowledged that the nationalistic ethos surrounding the enlightenment movement in the 1900's identified Korean language, along with Korean history, as essential ingredients to the movement's success.
[20] In affirmation of this, some Koreans under the leadership of Chu- Si-gyong inaugurated in 1921 the Society for the Study of the Korean Language (renamed in 1937 as the Korean Language Society). Composed of Korean linguists, the organization popularized the use of hangul through its monthly journal, Hangul. It also contributed immensely in the standardization of the Korean alphabet's orthography and usage, the compilation of a dictionary of the Korean language, the standardization of spelling, and many others. The Society also enhanced the appreciation of Korean culture by setting a date to commemorate the day when the Korean alphabet was first promulgated.
[21]Not quite incidentally, the Japanese authorities branded the Korean Language Society a subversive group that was working for Korea's independence. As a result, twenty-nine of its members were arrested with a dozen of them convicted and sentenced.
[22]The pride and high regard the Korean Language Society had for hangul was unmistakable. The inaugural editorial of the Society's journal is evident of this:
At present when all fields of science, scholarship, and culture of the society are progressing daily, everything depends on the spoken and written word. We need not belabor how important and precious speech and scripts [hangul] are in our life and how indispensable they are every minute of the day. Every nation has its own speech and scripts, which its people love greatly.
We, the Koreans, have a fine speech and scripts. Our scripts, hangul in particular, are excellent; they have unchanging sounds, they look attractive, and they are easy to learn and use….
We are happy for the sake of the future of hangul that some forty years ago, Chu Sigyong, our great teacher, opened the right path which not a few disciples chose to follow with the full intention of working diligently for the promotion of hangul.
[23]………………………………………………………………………
The enthusiasm by which the Koreans embraced their language and system of writing had far-reaching consequences. As one clear example of its significant results, Andrew C. Nahm writes: "…The Korean language newspapers which appeared after 1919 and survived until 1940 contributed much to the increase of literacy and the expansion of the public awareness of Korea's social and economic ills and nationalistic cultural interests, particularly the struggle of the Koreans to preserve their own language (emphasis mine)."
[24]We can very well assume that there were numerous other positive results that came out of the Koreans' fervent support for their language, and that these can rightfully be attributed to King Sejong himself who, with his enlightened leadership, brought not only the hangul alphabet and literacy but, in so doing, also instilled pride and nationalism among his people.
As has been shown in this paper, the introduction of the Korean alphabet system has brought incalculable benefits to the people of Korea, foremost of which is the democratization of education. By giving the people the ability to read and write in their own language, knowledge became widespread and social awareness was enhanced. Yet, the legacy of hangul does not end there. With the coming of the Japanese, not only hangul and the Korean language served as a tool for communication; more than that, hangul served as a symbol of Korea as a nation with a unique culture that had to be protected, preserved and developed. In times of oppression, it became a symbol of defiance of a nation that looked back to its history and saw it as glorious and comparable to that of the ancient civilizations of its neighbors, particularly China. With the advent of this newfound confidence, the Koreans realized and strongly asserted their innate capability to develop and become great on their own, so that even if Japan was not defeated by the Allied Powers in World War II and driven out of Korea, it would have likely toppled the Japanese colonial government on its own given the intense nationalism and sense of independence its people possess.
To this day, Korea stands as a nation still very proud as it was thousands of years ago. It is as if its people still see the world in the eyes of King Sejong when he first thought of devising the Korean alphabet thinking that he could accomplish what then was thought of as insane and impossible--to digress from the cultural standards set by the ancient civilization of China. Though at first it seems to appear as a very simple plan that Sejong had for his kingdom, it cannot be denied that his independent way of thinking eventually paved the way for what future generations of Koreans would take in dealing with the world.
Indeed, the nature of criticisms Koreans hurl at what they perceive as foreign interference in their national affairs, particularly on the issue of Korea's unification, subtly show their independent mind and abhorrence for being dictated on by foreign powers.
Sejong may not have anticipated the numerous influences his leadership and alphabetic system would bring to different spheres of Korean society, but if he were alive today, he himself would be surprised at how far his genius has gone in terms of winning recognition from all over the world, reaping honors and accolades for his country and his people. On top of that, he would be surprised to know that the alphabet system that was once looked down on by the aristocratic class has proven to be a tremendous social leveler with its use in all levels of educational system and in just about any printed matter that one encounters in present-day Korea.
Today, hangul is widely acknowledged to be the world's most scientific system of writing with its ability to approximate just about any sound from any language. The ease with which it can be learned is well-known and its use has been recognized by the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for its role in fighting illiteracy. UNESCO has also created an award, the King Sejong Literacy Prize, for outstanding achievements in combating illiteracy.
[25]In Korea itself, hangul has been credited for making Korea as having one of the highest literacy rates in the world. In addition, the ease with which hangul can be adopted for the use of computers and other electronic equipment has enabled Koreans to be highly skilled in the realm of information technology. Today, Korea boasts as being the most wired country in the world,
[26]with almost every household having access to the world wide web. This is an unsurpassed feat for any country and acquires special significance when viewed in consideration of the fact that English is known to be the lingua franca of information technology.
Hangul has also invaded the realm of the arts. In dance, typography, sculpture and calligraphy, Korean artists are continuously trying to explore the possibilities for the creative expression of the Korean script.
[27] The fervor with which Koreans embrace and transform hangul reveals their strong attachment to this cultural icon. Indeed, the average Korean needs no reminding that theirs is the only writing system in the world that has ever been invented through a royal decree. Similarly, they are also quick to point out hangul's simplicity and accuracy.
From education to the fight for independence, from literary expression to digital and artistic transformations, hangul doubtlessly predominates in the Korean psyche. It is to Koreans a legacy that performs specific functions relative to their needs and aspirations. There is no doubt that this legacy has tremendously helped in shaping the consciousness of the Koreans, giving them a strong foundation on which they can turn to when they need confidence, inspiration, and tangible proof that Koreans can excel and are capable of accomplishing greater things.
Hangul has proven to the Korean people that it is possible to be independent from powerful countries. If it has been done with hangul in relation to Chinese, it can also be done in other realms like the arts, science, economy and technology. Modern Korea has demonstrated that great things are possible to accomplish, and they only needed one great example to set things in motion. Indeed, it has accomplished so much than perhaps King Sejong, its originator, had hoped for.
Cho Inji, one of the most trusted scholars of King Sejong, once wrote what today Koreans can only call very prophetic: "Although our country has existed in the eastern corner of the world for a long period of time, not until today has the great wisdom of cultivating a new enlightenment and completing its task been realized."
[28]***
[1] Gustaf John Rumstedt. A Korean Grammar (The Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1968), 1.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Jacob Chang –ui Kim. Pictorial Sino-Korean Characters: Fun with Hancha (Seoul: Hollym International Corp., 1982), 22.
[4] Bruce K Grant. A Guide to Korean Characters, 2nd revised ed. (Seoul: Hollym, 1982), p. 11.
[5]Peter H. Lee, ed. Sourcebook of Korean Civilization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 1:516-517.
[6] Lee, Ibid. 518.
[7] Grant, Ibid.
[8] Ibid. 519-520.
[9] Andrew C. Nahm. Korea: Tradition and Transformation (Western Michigan University: Hollym, 1988), 116.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Kim Jin-Pyong, "The Letterforms of Han'gul: It's Origin and Process of Transformation" in The Korean Language, The Korean National Commission for UNESCO, ed. (USA: Pace International Research, Inc., 1983), 87.
[12] Michael Keon, Korean Phoenix: A Nation from the Ashes (New Jersey: Prentice Hall International, 1977), 27.
[13] Kim, Ibid., 91-92.
[14] Ibid., 93.
[15] Ki-baik Lee, translated by Edward W. Wagner with Edward J. Shultz, A New History of Korea (Seoul: Ichokak Publishers, 1984), 238.
[16] Ibid., 95.
[17] Kim Donguk, "History of Korean Literature," in East Asian Cultural Studies Series, No. 20, translated by Leon Hurvitz (Tokyo: The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1980), 290-291.
[18] P. Lee, Ibid., 334.
[19]Ibid., 329.
[20] Ibid., 2:414.
[21] Lee, A New History of Korea, 369.
[22] P. H. Lee, Sourcebook, 488.
[23] Ibid., 489.
[24] Nahm, Ibid., 300.
[25] Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Korea, The Korean Alphabet: Hangeul (Seoul: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 1999), VHS format.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28]P. H. Lee, Sourcebook, 1:518.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grant, Bruce K. A Guide to Korean Characters, 2nd revised ed. Seoul: Hollym, 1982.
Keon, Michael. Korean Phoenix: A Nation from the Ashes. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International, 1977.
Kim, Donguk. "History of Korean Literature," in East Asian Cultural Studies Series, No. 20, translated by Leon Hurvitz. Tokyo: The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1980), 290-291.
Kim, Jacob Chang –ui. Pictorial Sino-Korean Characters: Fun with Hancha. Seoul: Hollym International Corp., 1982.
Kim Jin-Pyong, "The Letterforms of Han'gul: It's Origin and Process of Transformation" in The Korean Language, The Korean National Commission for UNESCO, ed. USA: Pace International Research, Inc., 1983.
Lee, Ki-baik, translated by Edward W. Wagner with Edward J. Shultz. A New History of Korea Seoul: Ichokak Publishers, 1984.
Lee, Peter H., ed. Sourcebook of Korean Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Korea, The Korean Alphabet: Hangeul. Seoul: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 1999, VHS format.
